Evolution towards different types of 3D models
In vitro and in silico alternatives to animal models in toxicology

The concept of the 3D cell model emerged 40 years ago, and is based on the arrangement of cells into structures that mimic the organization of tissue in vivo. It is based on the notion that the organization of a tissue's architecture is one of the characteristics essential for the full expression of its function. Thus, interactions between the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the cells that make up a tissue constitute a continuum of complex and dynamic extra- and intracellular connections, whose structure conditions the response to external stimuli, including environmental stresses.

In recent years, numerous 3D cell culture models have been proposed to study the toxic effects of contaminants on the liver, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, neurology, heart and skin, with the aim of producing structures that resemble their cellular organization in vivo in a spatial configuration...