Rely on the ultimate technical and scientific reference

The atomic absorption Sspectrometry, elemental quantification technique, is based on analysing the wavelengths generated by a light source and not absorbed by the element; the degree of absorption is proportional to the concentration. The detection limits are in the order of mg/L or µg/L depending on the atomisation method used (flame or graphite furnace). It also allows the analysis of mercury by cold vapours, as well as hydrides of several elements (As, Sn, Se, etc.). After reviewing the fundamental theoretical principles, this article describes the equipment in detail, highlights issues related to quantification and interference, and provides numerous examples of applications.

This paper intends to provide the keys to understanding silicon MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) transistor operation, including process, advantages and limitations. After an introduction on MOS device structure and on how an MOS capacitor functions, transistor electrical characteristics will be described, to get a handle on the different operating regimes. A special focus will be made on the performance evaluation and optimization description, while linking it to the technological development roadmap and its associated limitations. Conventional bulk MOS transistor structure evolution and its scaling will be described up to the introduction of new transistor structures that are mandatory to continue to follow Moore’s law.

Dielectric resonators are non-conductive high permittivity ceramic objects, used to replace microwave cavities and reduce their size. They confine electromagnetic waves with up to 95% of their energy, through the TE01d mode of resonance. That article introduces the RLC resonant circuit, the microwave resonant cavity and the different coupling modes within the resonators. The quality factor of the cavities and dielectric resonators is obtained with resonance linewidth measurements of filters in transmission or absorption mode. Other ways of loading the cavity allow volume reduction of filters or access to higher frequencies. See for example the TM, HEM, TEM or gallery mode.

Dielectric resonators (DR) are central and basic elements in microwaves circuits with, for example, filters or oscillators. In this article, we will first describe how to measure the most important parameters for DR (permittivity, quality factor and thermal stability) as well as the elaboration process of the dielectric ceramic parts. Then will be presented some selection criteria to pick a DR and some market references. In a third part, we will introduce the physical origin and meaning of the permittivity of the material, followed by a non-exhaustive list of dielectric materials and their properties and chemical diagrams.

X-ray powder diffraction is a non-destructive method widely used in the academic and industrial worlds, thanks to considerable progresses over the last 30 years in equipment and data analyses. This article describes the experiment, reviewing the principle and describing the current set-ups. The key elements of the analysis are outlined (sample preparation, data collection). Structural information that can be extracted from a diffractogram is detailed, including phase identification, phase quantification, such as phase identification, phase quantification and microstructural analysis, while highlighting the biases and limitations.

This article concerns ceramic capacitors, passive components used in every domain of electronics. Their electrical performance and properties depend on their manufacturing technology and on the nature of their dielectric and metal materials. Choice of capacitor type depends on the desired application. It must take into account the value of the desired capacitance and the behavior of the dielectric according to the conditions of use. Implementation and bonding technologies together with reliability and cost constraints are other choice factors to consider.

Lean Startup aims to maximize the benefits of human creativity by making optimal use of available resources. Its purpose is to provide customers with a product perfectly suited to their needs. However, Lean Startup is not a general approach, but a well-defined concept. To apply its principles, we use the Running Lean methodology developed by Ash Maurya, based on the Customer Development of Steve Blank. After a presentation of Lean Startup, the Customer Development and Running Lean methodologies are detailed. The article concludes with two examples of applications.

Once treated by processes reducing their volume and nuisance potential, the sludges issued from urban and industrial water treatments shall, as waste, to be disposed of in a logical recycling of matter and energy. Therefore different disposal routes are considered, such as land application, recycling in an industrial process, thermal treatments and landfilling.

The measurement of direct voltages is a fundamental issue in electrical metrology. It is essential for unit traceability, instrument calibration, and the reliability of electronic and industrial systems.This article explores methods for measuring direct-current voltage, distinguishing between two major approaches:- so-called opposition or null methods, based on a reference voltage and ratio-balancing techniques;- direct-reading methods, which rely on the use of a voltmeter.It also examines the various disturbing phenomena likely to affect the accuracy and fidelity of measurements, and provides an overall view of the achievable metrological performance.

The risk of explosive atmospheres (ATEX) is frequent in laboratories due to the use of inflammable products(gases or liquids). A regulation has been drafted in order to improve the health and safety of workers exposed to the ATEX risk. This article is dedicated to the implementation of this regulation within laboratories. The regulation, its principles and main requirements as well as the definition of ATEX zones are firstly listed. The implementation of this regulation in laboratories is then presented on the basis of general information and illustrated with a few cases of common situations.