Macro- and micrographic equipment
Optical and electronic metallography

The structure of a material is analyzed using a scanning tool (particles or radiation) which extracts information that is then analyzed in terms of topography (image), crystallography (elementary mesh) and elemental analysis (chemical elements and ions).

Depending on the results to be achieved, and on the properties of the particles and radiation emitted, channelizer and detector systems are highly varied, and have given rise to numerous devices of varying degrees of sophistication. All systems using particles on the excitation and emission sides require high-vacuum chambers. Some detectors also require very low temperatures (nitrogen, liquid helium).

Table 9 summarizes the reactions of matter when excited by particles or radiation, and gives the corresponding decoding devices. Of...