Thermoelectric modules: state of the art and new developments
Thermoelectric generators: from design to applications

For many years, the only thermoelectric modules available for industrial applications at an affordable cost were bismuth telluride (Bi₂Te₃) modules. The conquest of space being an exception that allowed other materials to be used, as price was not an obstacle.

These Bi₂Te₃ modules are produced by various manufacturers around the world. These include HiZ (USA), Marlow (USA), TECTEG (Canada), Thermonamic (China), Lairdtech (USA), KELK (Japan), QuickOhm (Germany) and Kryothem (Russia). These materials have a $z\cdot T$ close to 1 at 50°C, which then decreases as the temperature rises. Maximum module operating temperature varies between 200°C and 300°C, depending on the technology used by various manufacturers to make contact between the thermoelectric...