2. State-sponsored attacks and APTs

The evolution of national doctrines in the cyber domain, whether for countries generally described as "rogue states" or, more recently, for most democratic states, considers the offensive potential of malware to be indispensable. It has become as much a part of the military and state arsenal as conventional or nuclear weaponry. However, in addition to scientific and technological knowledge in the field, the dominant technological and economic position has a significant impact on the development of this capability. The United States and China, as the main suppliers of technologies, standards and IT resources (software and hardware), enjoy an undeniable advantage in a situation of near-monopoly that often borders on hegemony.

Information technologies have become sensitive or dual-use technologies, and are now subject to export controls under the Wassenaar Arrangement...