1. Fundamentals

1.1 Issues and general objectives

Complex systems comprise a large number of heterogeneous components with multiple interactions. They can evolve through learning and exhibit a phenomenon known as emergence, meaning that their overall behavior is not equal to the sum of the behaviors of their parts. As a result, their validation is not easy .

In practice, testing a complex system and making the necessary corrections now accounts for more than half of the project cost. The testing phases often take longer than the design...