Conclusion

3D/4D printing by fused-film deposition (FFF) is a disruptive technology that enables the manufacture of complex final parts with reduced manufacturing costs and without the need for additional tooling. However, due to the moderate mechanical properties of polymers and composites with discontinuous reinforcements, 3D printing of composites with continuous fibers, both synthetic and plant-based, is beginning to emerge as a fast-growing field of research.

Although its mechanical properties are more modest than those of conventional processes (e.g. thermocompression) due to persistent defects (notably porosity), this technology offers encouraging performance. It could even complement other manufacturing processes for continuous fiber-reinforced composites, such as automated fiber placement (AFP), thanks in particular to its ability to generate complex shapes and address...