4. Bioassays and biosensors

The growing number of pollutants potentially harmful to the environment calls for the development of rapid, cost-effective analytical techniques for integration into extensive monitoring programs.

As a result, the use of biological data to complement chemical analyses, as well as the development of biosensors such as immunoassays, biosensors and bioassays, has increased considerably in recent years.

The first biological tools applied to the environmental field were toxicity tests using mammals, birds or fish as test species [35] . However, these methods face standardization problems, are expensive and time-consuming, and also raise ethical issues. For all these reasons, new methods have been developed. These new biological methods are based on invertebrates,...