3. Application to a multiphysics system: a PEMFC fuel cell

The fuel cell is a relatively old concept, dating back to the 19th century. Its operating principle was first described by William Grove as early as 1839 ( [8][9][10] ).

During the space conquest of the 1950s and 1960s, NASA developed fuel cells for use in the Gemini and Apollo programs. In the following decades (1970 and 1980), interest in fuel cells remained marginal, mainly due to their high cost and short lifespan.

It wasn't until the 1990s that the emergence of a collective environmental consciousness, combined with a marked reduction in the availability of energy resources, gave...