Frequency generation

This article treats frequency generation notably in oscillators and high-end timepieces, and their application in areas ranging from metrology to basic physics. Described in detail are: the main operating principles and performances of electronic oscillators (simple and typical model), quartz oscillators (resonators, circuits, hardware and performances), microwave oscillators (ceramic dielectric resonator and sapphire resonator) and atomic clocks (physics generalities and principles, atomic fountain, cesium beam clock, CPT clock, hydrogen maser, mercury ion clock, etc.).