2. Thermoelectric modules: state of the art and new developments

For many years, the only thermoelectric modules available for industrial applications at an affordable cost were bismuth telluride (Bi ₂ Te ₃ ) modules. The conquest of space being an exception that allowed other materials to be used, as price was not an obstacle.

These Bi ₂ Te ₃ modules are produced by various manufacturers around the world. These include HiZ (USA), Marlow (USA), TECTEG (Canada), Thermonamic (China), Lairdtech (USA), KELK (Japan), QuickOhm (Germany) and Kryothem (Russia). These materials have a $z\cdot T$ close to 1 at 50°C, which then decreases...