5. Conclusion

In this article, we have described, step by step, the process of fully integrating an optical phase modulator, the basic building block of any type of optical modulator, into a lithium niobate crystal using optical waveguide technologies based on metal diffusion. These modulators are described in greater detail in a subsequent article.

The performance achieved today, whether in terms of drive voltages, optical losses, or modulation bandwidths, meets all user requirements and needs in a wide range of applications and wavelength ranges, from visible to mid-infrared, for telecommunications, sensors, instrumentation, lidars, complex laser systems, quantum technologies, and communications.