1. Quantum principles

1.1 Wave/particle duality

We present here a brief summary of the history of quantum computing.

Towards the end of the 19th century, classical physics showed its limitations. It was unable to explain certain phenomena at the atomic scale, such as blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect.

In 1900, Max Planck proposed the notion of discrete packets of energy, called energy quanta, to explain blackbody radiation. This marked the birth of quantum mechanics.

Taking up the idea, Albert Einstein, in 1905, postulated that light is composed of particles, photons, whose energy is quantized, and thus succeeded in interpreting, and explaining, the photoelectric effect.

In 1913, Niels Bohr improved...