4. Developments in scanning electron microscopy

Since the 2000s, steady progress has been made in the design and manufacture of scanning electron microscopes:

• to improve spatial resolution:

  • by reducing electronic lens aberrations,

  • by improving detector performance,

  • by improving the brilliance of electron guns;

• to adapt its use to the electronic components industry and to a multitude of accessories that connect to the SEM: appropriate "object" chambers equipped with many input ports;

• for optimizing low and extra-low voltage operation;

• to facilitate management through computerization;

• to integrate the digitization of acquired images right from...