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Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently the dominant technology for energy storage (electric vehicles, stationary storage systems (BESS), household applications). However, their high energy density and the presence of flammable electrolytes generate specific risks, mainly related to the thermal runaway (TR) phenomenon. This review examines the mechanisms of TR initiation and propagation, the thermal and chemical characteristics of fires involving LIBs, the challenges associated with early detection, and recommendations for system design. Test methods and research priorities are also discussed.
Chronopotentiometry is a measurement of potential, as a function of time, the excitation signal being constant or variable in time, but not zero, and the transfer of matter being ensured by diffusion. The article presents the theory and the different applications of chronoamperometry: - with monotonic imposed current, it is widely used for electrode characterization and study of reaction mechanisms - with cyclic or alternating current for the study of complex systems, - with pulse trains, for the determination of thermodynamic properties and interdiffusion coefficients of alloys.
Since 1991, lithium-ion batteries with liquid electrolytes have dominated the electric vehicle and stationary storage markets. However, they present major challenges: their safety is compromised by a flammable organic electrolyte, and their longevity is limited by problems at the electrode-electrolyte interface. Current research aims to improve these aspects, particularly through the development of new electrode materials. A crucial technological advance is the all-solid-state battery, which replaces the liquid electrolyte with a non-flammable inorganic solid electrolyte. This innovation solves the problems of safety and longevity, marking a fundamental break in cell architecture.
The ecological footprint of this Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is not limited to energy and climate problems but is also a consequence of the many rare or critical metals they contain. Recycling WEEE would work towards meeting the growing demand for mineral raw materials, while limiting their mining extraction. In a context of instability of international raw materials markets, this article focuses on a selection of metals contained in WEEE and on the various current and developing industrial pathways aimed at recycling them.
Sodium-ion battery technology appears to be complementary to Li-ion battery systems, and in line with sustainable policies. In this article, we first describe the working principle of such a sodium-ion battery. Then, the materials used or possibly used as anode and cathode are depicted. For the negative electrode, hard carbon remains the most used material, even if other insertion, alloy or conversion materials are promising. For positive electrode materials, the different species can be classified in three families: Prussian blue analogs, polyanionic materials and transition metal oxides.
Electrochemistry is a constantly evolving discipline, which for over a century and a half has played an essential role in the materials processing industries, providing unique processes that are indispensable to today's modern world. Unlike chemical processes, an electrochemical process uses electric current to transform matter. This concept is characterized by the term "electrolysis", which means "decomposition by electricity". Transformation takes place in a cell containing an ionically conductive electrolyte, in which the substance to be transformed is contained. Two electrodes, in contact with the electrolyte, ensure the passage of the electric current.
Battery ageing is complex and relies on multiple parameters depending on materials and design. Limiting ageing is a major economic and environmental goal, especially as more and more applications are targeting battery cycle life over 10 years with autonomy loss below 20-30%. Being able to diagnose, slow down and predict battery aging is essential. Root cause reactions and stress factors are studied for more than 30 years and become more and more precise and specific according to materials and usage conditions. These works are guiding now the development of mitigation strategies and prediction models. This article presents the main causes of performances degradation, consequences on internal components and battery behaviour and some of ageing mitigation strategies.
This article describes the (r)evolutions underway in lithium-ion electrochemical battery technology as a result of the emergence of the electric mobility and renewable energy markets. In particular, it shows how, over the last ten years, the industry has had to embark on a paradigm shift imposed first and foremost by a radical change in the scale of production volumes, and its corollary of lower costs. This movement has led to the creation of gigafactories, which are now also gaining a foothold on the European continent. These are the tools used to mass-produce large batteries, which means that issues relating to access to and recycling of battery materials are now more sensitive.
The storage of electricity or heat is a strategic issue. Storing large quantities of electricity during off-peak hours helps absorb daily fluctuations and peak demands. Solar energy and wind energy are available intermittently, and are subject to large fluctuations. Electricity storage smooths out these variations in output and reduces the use of fossil fuel plants that take over to meet demand. Portable devices for communication and entertainment, and plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles require high-performance rechargeable batteries. Storing thermal energy (in the form of heat or cold) is a major issue in energy supply considerations. Heat can be stored in the short term (e.g. an electric water heater) but is more difficult in the long term (inter-seasonal storage).
The life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a comparative tool for environmental assessment of any human activity. The realization of an LCA takes place in four stages: goals definition, inventory of input and output, assessment of potential impacts on the environment and interpretation. The objective of this article is to present this tool in an exhaustive and synthetic way. This article first presents the LCA history. It then describes the main methodological steps. The last parts focus on its applications and limitations.
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