Conclusion

While recycling will in future be insufficient to provide the quantities of materials needed for new technologies, known reserves of primary resources should most probably suffice for the energy transition. Contrary to the voices raised in support of mankind's fundamental fear of running out of resources, it appears that most problems have been solved in the past by technological progress. For over twenty years, we have seen spectacular increases in both production and reserves.

To power Li-ion batteries, common metals such as iron, copper and manganese will only be used at a relatively low percentage of their current production. Difficulties may arise from delays in the installation of extraction-refining technologies for lithium, cobalt and, to a lesser degree, nickel, and from monopoly situations in both primary production and refining, which is currently dominated...