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Per tonne transported, rail freight is the most energy-efficient mode of land transport, thanks to the low rolling resistance of steel-on-steel contact. However, on a global scale, nearly 75% of rail freight still relies on diesel traction. In the context of the climate emergency, this article provides a comprehensive overview of low-carbon alternative technologies applicable to rail freight: electrification, batteries, hydrogen, biofuels, and hybrid systems. It offers a rigorous techno-economic assessment based on total costs, greenhouse gas emissions, and impacts on public finances. The objective is to provide an analytical framework to support technological and policy choices towards a credible, realistic, and sustainable decarbonization pathway.
Electric drives are an essential component in industry. Electric motors are used everywhere (pumping, conveying, ventilation, etc.). The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that 70% of industrial electricity consumption is used to power equipment. Reducing operating costs therefore requires the use of energy-efficient drive systems. Most applications use fixed-speed motors. Using a variable-frequency drive (VFD) to control a fan or pump is a more efficient way to regulate flow than using simple control valves or inlet or outlet dampers. For a motor operating under variable load, speed control is a key factor in achieving energy savings, given that 95% of operating expenses are energy costs.
The operating principle of a geothermal system involves combining a geothermal energy source—which captures thermal energy from the ground—with a heat pump-type thermodynamic system to raise the temperature of the thermal energy, and a distribution network within the building. A key feature of this system is its ability to produce heat (heating, domestic hot water— –, DHW) and cooling (cooling and air conditioning) depending on the season and needs. These so-called low-temperature geothermal systems are used in industrial and commercial buildings as well as in residential buildings, improving the building’s environmental performance and, consequently, its green value.
The renewed interest in e-fuels stems from the climate emergency and the energy transition, as well as the limitations of current low-carbon solutions and the challenges associated with renewable energy. The Limits of Battery-Powered Electrification: Batteries are the ideal solution for passenger cars and light-duty vehicles. However, they face physical and economic limitations for certain applications, such as air travel (batteries currently lack the energy density required for long-haul flights) and maritime transport (the weight and volume of the batteries needed to cross oceans). The search for complementary solutions: e-fuels are viewed as a complement to electrification, not as a competitor.
Cogeneration involves the simultaneous production of electricity and heat from a single energy source, whether fossil-based (natural gas, fuel oil) or renewable (biogas, biomass, municipal solid waste). This process optimizes the energy efficiency of facilities by recovering heat that is typically lost during electricity generation. Overall efficiency generally reaches 85 to 90%, and even exceeds 95% in some cases of micro-cogeneration. Cogeneration is particularly well-suited for sites with simultaneous needs for electricity and heat, such as hospitals, industrial facilities, or district heating networks.
Facility Management (FM) is a concept that encompasses a range of roles—some simple, but all essential—whose goal is to create a work environment that fosters efficiency and the well-being of its users. Our study will be based on this definition, although it is by no means the only one. Companies typically use this service to outsource a number of tasks that are not directly related to their core business. The implementation of the process is based on five pillars: scope of the tasks to be outsourced; selection of service providers; subcontracts; project funding; user satisfaction survey. These tasks can, in various ways, help reduce the energy consumption of the equipment or buildings used or occupied by users.
Energy efficiency in industry relies on identifying and implementing measures that offer the best cost-benefit ratio. This begins with a rigorous energy audit, followed by a series of specific improvements ranging from equipment upgrades to employee training. Furthermore, in 2026, the main sources of public funding for industry in France are structured around the France 2030 calls for projects, ADEME programs (including the Heat Fund and DECARB), and Energy Savings Certificates (CEE). Another essential aspect of an energy efficiency strategy is the mandatory application of the Ecodesign Directive 2009/125/EC when purchasing or installing new equipment.
Biomass valorisation is at the heart of the energetic resources’ issues in the twenty-first century. Mainly regarding wet biomass, supercritical water gasification is an interesting process to produce a valuable energetic gas, due to its non-fossil origin. The operating conditions of supercritical water processes, the influence of the main conditions on the nature and conversion yield of this process are detailed in this paper. The most important laboratory pilots are presented, together with the first industrial developments.
Carbon pricing systems are evolving and influencing international economies. Three main types can be distinguished: emissions trading systems (ETS), carbon taxes, and carbon credit mechanisms. Following a review of the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that must be avoided by 2035, this article summarizes the recent (2024–2025) changes observed across these three carbon pricing systems. The global reduction of GHG emissions results from the adoption of public policies and the implementation of instruments such as carbon pricing mechanisms. The analysis of these systems assesses their effectiveness on economies and highlights the need for more ambitious NDC targets to achieve climate goals
This article is devoted to the purification of biogas and in particular to the removal of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and siloxanes. After a presentation of the constituent elements of biogas after anaerobic digestion of domestic, industrial, agricultural organic matters or sewage sludge, the contents of undesirable compounds are presented. The separation/purification processes to be implemented depends on the recovery of the biomethane: engine, electricity, fuel cell or network injection. The treatment processes (condensation, membrane, absorption, adsorption, oxidation, biodegradation) of biogas are described and discussed.
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