1. International interconnections: a constantly evolving sector

The Europe of electricity in the early 1990s looked very different from today:

• almost everywhere on the continent, electricity generation, transmission, distribution and supply were monopolies:

  • in some EU countries (Italy, Portugal, Greece, France for 95% of its territory, etc.), the reference model was that of a nationalized company performing these four functions: these are known as integrated companies,

  • Elsewhere (Germany, the Netherlands, etc.), several producers coexisted on the wholesale market, but had a geographical monopoly over a given area, within an administered regulatory framework. Downstream, distribution and retail supply were handled by local monopolies, often owned by cities, which could simultaneously manage gas, water, sanitation and even telephone services...