3. Which nuclear receptors do hormones bind to?

Nuclear receptor proteins are found in many species, including invertebrates. There are over 150 different proteins.

Each type of hormone binds to specific nuclear receptors (NRs).

• Thyroid hormones act on nuclear TRα and TRβ receptors in different temporal and spatial modes.

• Estrogens act on two types of nuclear receptors, ERα and Erβ, as well as on specific membrane receptors.

• Testosterone acts on a single AR androgen receptor.

• In the case of nuclear receptors for thyroid and steroid hormones, the hormone-receptor complexes bind to specific regions of DNA to regulate gene transcription and create new proteins.

• Xenobiotics or their metabolites bind to AhR, PXR and CAR nuclear receptors,...