6. Conclusions and outlook

Lightening or whitening cosmetics have been part of the global cosmetics landscape for decades. In Europe and North America, they are highly prized for combating age spots and other hyperpigmentation problems. In Africa and Asia, however, they are mainly used to whiten the skin and appear more attractive. This quest for whiter skin can lead to real public health problems. This is due to the use of very aggressive compounds in very high concentrations, such as hydroquinone, or for pharmaceutical use, such as cortisone derivatives diverted from their medical use. The use of these molecules in cosmetics is prohibited by the European Cosmetics Regulation. However, many formulations containing banned substances or excessively high levels of restricted active ingredients continue to circulate in poorly controlled networks or countries.

The public health problems associated...