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The measurement of direct voltages is a fundamental issue in electrical metrology. It is essential for unit traceability, instrument calibration, and the reliability of electronic and industrial systems.This article explores methods for measuring direct-current voltage, distinguishing between two major approaches:- so-called opposition or null methods, based on a reference voltage and ratio-balancing techniques;- direct-reading methods, which rely on the use of a voltmeter.It also examines the various disturbing phenomena likely to affect the accuracy and fidelity of measurements, and provides an overall view of the achievable metrological performance.
In many technological fields (telecommunication, remote sensing, geolocalisation, industrial control, seismology), the useful information is not directly accessible as it is buried in the observed signal; this issue requires the development of hidden information methods. The Kalman filter, based upon a linear state model puts into equation the evolution of the useful signal and its relationship to the signal measured from a series of incomplete or noisy measurements. This article introduces elements of statistical estimations where the variable or the process to be estimated are hidden. It describes the dynamic state model, composed of the equation of the state process that the Kalman filter tries to estimate and the measuring process.
This paper presents theoretical analysis, experimental implementation, and potential wireless applications of six-port techniques at the millimeter-wave band. These applications include, in particular, the use of the six-port concept in direct-conversion receivers to replace conventional expensive high-power I/Q demodulators.This paper will also explore other innovative six-port radar techniques for various parameter measurements, including distance, relative speed, and angle of arrival (AoA). This manuscript will include examples of circuit implementations at millimeter-wave frequency bands, along with the associated measured performances, highlighting the current state-of-the-art six-port technology and its emerging applications
This article presents the connection rules for generators and measuring devices, in order to avoid perturbances wich can affect the accuracy of measurements. It focuses on the issues of series-mode voltage, common-mode voltage, of the influence of voltage supply, connection cables, devices with a teminal connected to ground, floating input or output devices and devices with a safety guard circuit. It end on examples on commonly made errors and feedback.
Whether active components are discrete (diodes, transistors) or integrated (logical, analog), their control generally includes the verification of static electrical dynamic parameters. The importance of these stages varies according to the purpose of the control and the concerned component. This article reviews the measurements to be carried out and the means to be used in order to implement them for each semi-conductor family and thus for each specific parameter (power intensity, input and output capacity, compression point, resolution, operating tension, etc.).
This article exclusively deals with measurements on passive components. Most electric characteristics of electronic components depend on the measurement frequency. This dependence is due to the presence of parasite elements of the inductance or capacity type. A large number of these measurements can be carried out with an apparatus capable of measuring the impedance: automatic bridge, I-V or RF I-V measurement and network analyzer. These various types of devices allow for determining the most suitable resistance, capacity and inductance values for the measurement.
The increased performances of electronic equipment is largely due to the improvement of electronic components. However verifying the characteristics of such components is a delicate operation which depends on the type of component to be tested. The measurement of the characteristics is necessary in order to define the functionality of the component and develop fabrication processes. Measurements of the components can be carried out using a large variety of measuring devices which are often complex to use. It is essential to choose the appropriate device and comply with measurement precautions.
This article is devoted to the measurement of high DC, AC and transient voltages. Measuring voltages of the order of a few kilovolts to a few hundred kilovolts involves the same techniques as those used to measure voltages commonly encountered in electronics and electrical engineering, and the measuring equipment itself is identical: oscilloscopes and voltmeters. However, there are fundamental differences when it comes to implementation. • First of all, as soon as the threshold of a few kilovolts is exceeded, the voltage falls outside the measuring range of the instruments.
The daily applications in which the presence of electric current is essential (household appliances, industrial equipment, electrical networks) leads us to be interested in the measurement of its parameters.An overview of electric current measurement is presented in this article. The measurable parameters are introduced in the first chapter, followed by the different measurement principles, instruments and current sensors, which are discussed in the second chapter. The aim is to inform the reader on the current possibilities, so that to choose according to the needs. The third chapter describes the concept of metrological traceability and some examples of the calibration of electrical current measuring instruments, highlighting the various components of uncertainty.
Under the angle of electromagnetic compatibility, any device or system must, in order to comply with the European directive, function in its electromagnetic environment in a satisfactory way and without producing electromagnetic disturbances detrimental to the rest of its environment. It is thus essential to know how to characterize the measurement methods in electromagnetic compatibility as much for the disturbances produced by a piece of equipment as for the impact it has on the it.
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