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This article presents the different types of rolling stands used on long products in carbon or low-alloy steels. It details the structure of the stands and their principle of operation. It also shows how stands can be arranged to build a rolling mill which may comprise up to 30 cages in one or more groups.
This article describes the general design of rolling mills for semi-finished and finished products. It also presents the finishing and quality control equipment associated with the different types of rolling mill.
This article describes rolling tools (e.g. rolls) and the stresses they undergo. It provides information on the principles of sizing, in particular on the succession of splines used to obtain a given finished product from the semi-finished product. Detailed examples of typical rolling runs are given for different finished products. Defects that may be encountered on rolled products and their origin are also listed.
The ecological footprint of this Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is not limited to energy and climate problems but is also a consequence of the many rare or critical metals they contain. Recycling WEEE would work towards meeting the growing demand for mineral raw materials, while limiting their mining extraction. In a context of instability of international raw materials markets, this article focuses on a selection of metals contained in WEEE and on the various current and developing industrial pathways aimed at recycling them.
Lithium-ion batteries are at the center of the energy transition for intermittent energy storage, and at the center of electric mobility with the rapid development of the electric vehicle market. These batteries must be efficient, as cheap as possible, and be part of the concept of the circular economy, i.e., the batteries have to use easily-supplied resources, the batteries have to exhibit environmental impact, and they have to be fully recycled. This article gives a short overview on the lithium-ion battery technologies before addressing the recycling processes.
Since the inventions which launched the steel industry from 1850 and 1900, steel technologies have evolved spectacularly, mainly driven by the increasing demand for steel in terms of quantity and quality levels. This article is tracing the significant steps of this evolution, marked after 1950 by the use of pure oxygen in the converter, the emergence of the electric mini mills, and the birth of ladle metallurgy. It illustrates in particular how the electric arc furnace has become highly productive and polyvalent both in terms of raw materials and energy sources.
Due to the considerable energy savings for producing secondary aluminum, compared to the primary aluminum, leading to a reduced financial cost, as well as a lower ecological footprint, there has always been a strong driving force for aluminum alloys recycling. This article therefore summarizes the state-of-the-art approaches related to aluminum recovery, sorting and recycling. Limits and weaknesses to the current material flow cycle, leading today to dilution or downcycling, are highlighted and discussed. Finally, the paper explores possible developments of the techniques to enhance the total yield, lower material loss for aluminum recycling and decrease the total need for aluminum.
The hydrometallurgy was initially developed to extract metals from ores (primary resources). For several decades, hydrometallurgy has had to adapt to complex ores-bodies. Hydrometallurgy is also the technology of choice for processing secondary resources (tailings and waste to recycle). It makes it possible to efficiently extract and separate metals contained in complex raw materials and secondary resources, and to produce metallic salts or ultra-pure metals requested in many strategic applications. This article presents the different unit operations of hydrometallurgical processes and the physicochemistry involved in these operations.
This paper deals with Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR), a secondary metallurgical process based on refining the liquid metal under vacuum and controlling its solidification within a cooled crucible. It applies to reactive Ti or Zr alloys, which are purified without any contact with refractories, and to steels and superalloys, whose inclusion cleanliness is improved. The principle of the VAR process and the technology of furnaces are discussed, with an emphasis on the process operation and safety aspects. The specificities of remelting are detailed for different grades. Finally, the interest of numerical simulation as a tool to help in the choice of operating parameters is illustrated.
The article describes zirconium and hafnium metallurgy, made difficult and costly by the chemical stability of their oxide or silicate ores, and the need to separate the two metals, which occur intimately mixed. The extractive metallurgy processes that yield the metal are first described, then the vacuum arc re-melting process that leads to the alloy ingot, and lastly the subsequent processing steps: forging, extrusion, rolling or pilgering to obtain the desired geometrical shape, and properties, with intermediate heat treatments performed under vacuum or inert gas when product thickness is in the millimeter range. The main alloys are listed.
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