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Dissolution, slag infiltration into the porosity of refractories, and erosion of the transformed surface are all mechanisms involved in the degradation of refractories by slag in steelmaking. The examples presented—based on industrial practices—illustrate the corrosion of different families of refractories during the stages of steel production.
A wide variety of refractory materials are used in a steel mill, with approximately 500 commercial grades for consumable refractories alone. This is due to an ongoing effort to optimize their performance and costs. From the upstream to the downstream sections of the plant, several major families of refractories are used, all of which are absolutely essential and whose development has at times been a key factor in the emergence of steelmaking processes—for example, magnesia-carbon bricks for the oxygen-blown converter process in the 1970s. During steel production, slags and temperatures vary significantly across different furnaces and equipment; this is the primary reason why different types of refractories must be used.
This article compiles the numerical values of enthalpy variations, between 25°C and various temperatures, for pure substances, elements, and compounds. It also includes the temperatures and enthalpy variations associated with phase transformations of some of these pure substances. Enthalpy of formation values for compounds at different temperatures are also reported. Secondly, a technique for evaluating the enthalpy of dissolution of elements in pure or low-alloyed liquid iron is presented. Finally, the document also presents data relative to various industrial materials such as steelmaking slags, fuels, coke, and pig iron.
This paper deals with Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR), a secondary metallurgical process based on refining the liquid metal under vacuum and controlling its solidification within a cooled crucible. It applies to reactive Ti or Zr alloys, which are purified without any contact with refractories, and to steels and superalloys, whose inclusion cleanliness is improved. The principle of the VAR process and the technology of furnaces are discussed, with an emphasis on the process operation and safety aspects. The specificities of remelting are detailed for different grades. Finally, the interest of numerical simulation as a tool to help in the choice of operating parameters is illustrated.
This article describes rolling tools (e.g. rolls) and the stresses they undergo. It provides information on the principles of sizing, in particular on the succession of splines used to obtain a given finished product from the semi-finished product. Detailed examples of typical rolling runs are given for different finished products. Defects that may be encountered on rolled products and their origin are also listed.
This article describes the general design of rolling mills for semi-finished and finished products. It also presents the finishing and quality control equipment associated with the different types of rolling mill.
This article presents the different types of rolling stands used on long products in carbon or low-alloy steels. It details the structure of the stands and their principle of operation. It also shows how stands can be arranged to build a rolling mill which may comprise up to 30 cages in one or more groups.
The ecological footprint of this Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is not limited to energy and climate problems but is also a consequence of the many rare or critical metals they contain. Recycling WEEE would work towards meeting the growing demand for mineral raw materials, while limiting their mining extraction. In a context of instability of international raw materials markets, this article focuses on a selection of metals contained in WEEE and on the various current and developing industrial pathways aimed at recycling them.
The hydrometallurgy was initially developed to extract metals from ores (primary resources). For several decades, hydrometallurgy has had to adapt to complex ores-bodies. Hydrometallurgy is also the technology of choice for processing secondary resources (tailings and waste to recycle). It makes it possible to efficiently extract and separate metals contained in complex raw materials and secondary resources, and to produce metallic salts or ultra-pure metals requested in many strategic applications. This article presents the different unit operations of hydrometallurgical processes and the physicochemistry involved in these operations.
Lithium-ion batteries are at the center of the energy transition for intermittent energy storage, and at the center of electric mobility with the rapid development of the electric vehicle market. These batteries must be efficient, as cheap as possible, and be part of the concept of the circular economy, i.e., the batteries have to use easily-supplied resources, the batteries have to exhibit environmental impact, and they have to be fully recycled. This article gives a short overview on the lithium-ion battery technologies before addressing the recycling processes.
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